Table 1 Preventive management measures around birth of calves that are to be retained in the herd

• A functioning separated calving area is available

• The calving area cannot be contaminated by faeces from cattle outside the calving area

• Calving cattle are always housed individually in the calving area, with a wall between them that prevents cross-contamination by faeces

• The calving area is thoroughly cleaned and free of faeces prior to each calving

• Calves are born in a thick layer of clean straw or on a clean sheet

• The calving area is used for calving only

• At least 90% of cattle calve in the calving area or in a 'clean' field (on which slurry has not been spread and cattle have not grazed recently)

• Calves are separated from their dams immediately after birth

• Each calf born unhygienic (i.e., not in the calving area or in a 'clean' field), is moved off the farm before one month of age